The Hisabestu Buraku and Suiheisha: Challenging Discrimination in Meiji Japan

During the Meiji era of Japan (1868-1912), as the nation rapidly modernized and established itself as a global power, a significant portion of Japanese society remained marginalized and discriminated against. The Hisabetsu Buraku, or “discriminated communities,” were subjected to severe social ostracism based on their historical occupations considered “impure” under traditional Japanese beliefs. While the government pushed for national unity and modernization, these communities organized themselves to challenge their oppression, forming movements like the Suiheisha (Levellers Society) in 1922. Their struggle represents one of the earliest and most significant civil rights movements in modern Japanese history, contesting the Meiji state’s assimilationist policies while drawing inspiration from global equality movements.

The historical context of Buraku discrimination 🔗

Buraku discrimination has deep roots in Japanese society, dating back to the medieval period and becoming institutionalized during the Edo period (1603-1868). The Burakumin were not ethnically different from other Japanese people but were discriminated against based on their ancestral occupations that were considered “impure” according to Buddhist and Shinto beliefs. These occupations typically involved death or animal products, such as butchery, leather work, and disposal of dead animals or execution of criminals.

During the Edo period, Japan’s rigid social hierarchy placed these communities at the very bottom of society, even below the four-tier class system of samurai, farmers, artisans, and merchants. They were designated as “eta” (extreme filth) and “hinin” (non-human), terms that encapsulated the severe dehumanization they experienced.

When the Meiji Restoration began in 1868, the new government initially seemed to offer hope with the 1871 Emancipation Edict (Eta Hinin Kaihōrei), which officially abolished the status system that had formally marginalized the Burakumin. The edict declared:

“The titles of eta and hinin are hereby abolished. Those who bore them are to be treated in the same manner as the common people.”

However, this legal change did little to address deeply entrenched social discrimination. In many ways, the situation of the Burakumin actually worsened during the Meiji period as Japan’s rapid industrialization disrupted traditional crafts that had provided livelihoods for many Burakumin communities, while discrimination prevented them from entering new economic sectors.

Meiji modernization and its impact on the Burakumin 🔗

The Meiji government’s modernization policies were predicated on creating a unified Japanese identity and strengthening the nation to compete with Western powers. Their approach to achieving this unity often involved forced assimilation rather than addressing underlying inequalities and discrimination.

For the Burakumin, the consequences of this approach were severe. While legally emancipated, they faced:

• Economic marginalization: Traditional Burakumin crafts like leather working were industrialized, leaving many skilled artisans unemployed, while discrimination prevented them from finding work in new industries.
• Educational barriers: Though education was theoretically universal under the Meiji system, Burakumin children faced severe discrimination in schools, with many being segregated or excluded entirely.
• Continued social ostracism: Marriage discrimination, housing segregation, and everyday social rejection remained commonplace, with family registries (koseki) often revealing Buraku origins.
• Official neglect: The government’s position that legal equality had solved the problem meant that continuing discrimination was largely ignored by authorities.

The government’s approach was essentially to expect the Burakumin to assimilate into mainstream Japanese society without addressing the structural barriers that made such assimilation virtually impossible. This contradiction between official equality and lived reality formed the backdrop against which Burakumin resistance would develop.

Early Burakumin resistance movements 🔗

The first organized Burakumin resistance movements began in the late 19th century, as community leaders recognized that government-directed liberation had failed to deliver meaningful change. These early movements followed different ideological approaches:

Assimilationist approaches 🔗

The Kaihōsha (Liberation Society), founded in 1902 by Burakumin elites with government support, advocated self-improvement and integration into mainstream society. This organization promoted values like diligence, education, and moral behavior, believing that Burakumin could eventually overcome discrimination by proving their worth to mainstream society.

The Kaihōsha’s approach reflected the government’s preferred method of dealing with the “Buraku problem” – placing the burden of change on the Burakumin themselves rather than addressing systemic discrimination. While well-intentioned, this approach implicitly accepted the premise that there was something inherently deficient about Burakumin communities that needed correction.

Religious movements 🔗

Some Burakumin turned to religious movements that offered messages of inherent human equality. Christian missionaries found receptive audiences in some Buraku communities, as did Buddhist reformers who emphasized the religion’s original egalitarian teachings. The Honganji branch of Jōdo Shinshū Buddhism was particularly influential, as its founder Shinran had historically preached equality of all beings.

Religious frameworks provided spiritual and philosophical resources for challenging discrimination, giving Burakumin communities language and concepts to articulate their inherent dignity and worth in society.

The birth of the Suiheisha (Levellers Society) 🔗

The most significant development in Burakumin resistance came with the founding of the Suiheisha (Levellers Society) on March 3, 1922, in Kyoto. The organization’s name directly referenced the English Levellers of the 17th century, who had advocated for radical social equality during the English Civil War. This deliberate connection to international movements for equality reflected the Suiheisha’s awareness of global struggles against discrimination.

The Suiheisha marked a radical departure from previous approaches to Burakumin liberation in several key ways:

• Rejection of assimilation: Unlike earlier movements, the Suiheisha rejected the idea that Burakumin needed to change themselves to be accepted by society.
• Emphasis on direct action: The organization advocated confronting discrimination directly through protest and denunciation campaigns.
• Pride in identity: Rather than hiding their background, Suiheisha members openly identified as Burakumin, transforming a source of shame into a position of resistance.
• Political analysis: The Suiheisha connected Burakumin oppression to broader social and economic inequalities in Japanese society.

The Suiheisha declaration 🔗

The founding declaration of the Suiheisha remains one of the most powerful civil rights documents in Japanese history. It stated in part:

“Tokushu Buraku people throughout the country: Unite! Long-suffering brothers and sisters, the time has come to awaken to our own human dignity… We must be proud of being Eta… We should not be disappointed in being called Eta, but rather feel anger against those who have created such a term.”

This remarkable statement transformed the derogatory label “eta” from a source of shame to a political identity from which to launch resistance. It rejected the premise that Burakumin were inferior and instead placed moral culpability on those who discriminated against them. This radical inversion of social values represented a fundamentally new approach to challenging discrimination in Japan.

Ideological influences and intersections 🔗

The Suiheisha drew inspiration from multiple ideological sources, creating a unique blend of influences that shaped its approach to challenging discrimination:

Socialism and anarchism 🔗

Many Suiheisha leaders were influenced by socialist and anarchist thought that had entered Japan in the early 20th century. These ideologies provided frameworks for understanding Burakumin oppression as part of broader systems of exploitation rather than as isolated social prejudice. Key figures like Jiichirō Matsumoto and Mankichi Saiko had connections to Japan’s labor and socialist movements, allowing them to place Burakumin liberation within larger critiques of capitalism and state power.

The Suiheisha’s emphasis on collective action and solidarity reflected socialist organizational principles, while its skepticism toward state solutions showed anarchist influence. This political analysis helped the movement avoid the individualistic focus of earlier assimilationist approaches, recognizing that discrimination was a structural rather than personal problem.

Religious humanism 🔗

Despite its political radicalism, the Suiheisha also drew strength from religious concepts of human dignity and equality. Many members came from communities with strong connections to progressive Buddhist sects, particularly Jōdo Shinshū. The movement’s emphasis on inherent human worth and dignity reflected these religious influences, as did its focus on community solidarity.

This blend of secular political radicalism and spiritually-informed humanism gave the Suiheisha a unique character and helped it appeal to Burakumin communities with diverse beliefs and backgrounds.

Global civil rights connections 🔗

The Suiheisha deliberately positioned itself within international struggles for equality, not only through its name’s reference to the English Levellers but also through connections to other movements. Some leaders were aware of anti-caste movements in India, African American civil rights efforts, and class struggles throughout the world. This international perspective helped the movement transcend purely local or cultural explanations for discrimination.

Tactics and activities of the Suiheisha 🔗

The Suiheisha pioneered several innovative tactics in their struggle against discrimination:

Denunciation campaigns (kyūdan) 🔗

Perhaps the most distinctive Suiheisha tactic was the “denunciation campaign” (kyūdan), in which instances of discrimination were publicly confronted and the perpetrators asked to apologize. When discriminatory incidents occurred-such as the use of slurs, discriminatory hiring practices, or exclusion from public facilities-local Suiheisha branches would organize confrontations demanding recognition of wrongdoing.

These campaigns reversed traditional power dynamics by placing discriminators on the defensive. Rather than quietly accepting mistreatment, Burakumin publicly named and confronted discrimination, often forcing apologies or retractions. This approach challenged the social consensus that allowed discrimination to continue unchallenged in everyday interactions.

Cultural production and education 🔗

The Suiheisha recognized the importance of developing independent cultural and educational resources. The organization published its own newspaper, “Suihei Shinbun” (The Leveller), which circulated information about discrimination cases, organizational activities, and ideological discussions. They also created cultural programs featuring music, poetry, and theater that celebrated Burakumin heritage and articulated liberation themes.

Educational efforts were particularly important, as many Burakumin children still faced severe discrimination in public schools. Suiheisha branches organized supplementary education programs and advocated against segregated schooling practices.

Political advocacy 🔗

While maintaining independence from existing political parties, the Suiheisha engaged in advocacy for policies addressing Burakumin concerns. They demanded improvements in Burakumin neighborhoods, which often lacked basic infrastructure like clean water and sewage systems. They also pushed for enforcement of anti-discrimination provisions in employment and education.

These political activities positioned the Burakumin not as passive recipients of government assistance but as active citizens demanding their rights.

Government response and repression 🔗

The Japanese government’s response to the Suiheisha was largely hostile. As Japan moved toward ultranationalism in the late 1920s and 1930s, the government increasingly viewed the Suiheisha as a threat to national unity and social order. The organization’s connections to socialist and anarchist movements made it particularly suspect in a period of intense political repression.

Government responses included:

• Police surveillance: Suiheisha meetings and members were frequently monitored by the Special Higher Police (Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu, or “Tokkō”), who targeted political dissidents.
• Arrests and harassment: Many Suiheisha leaders faced arrest on various pretexts, particularly those with connections to banned left-wing organizations.
• Promotion of assimilationist alternatives: The government supported more moderate Burakumin organizations that emphasized assimilation rather than confrontation.
• Censorship: Suiheisha publications faced censorship, with issues of Suihei Shinbun frequently confiscated or blocked from distribution.

By the late 1930s, as Japan’s militarization intensified, the Suiheisha faced increasing difficulty operating openly. The government’s emphasis on national unity in service of imperial expansion left little room for movements highlighting internal divisions and injustices.

Legacy and influence 🔗

Despite government repression and the challenges of operating during Japan’s militarist period, the Suiheisha left a profound legacy that would influence post-war Burakumin liberation movements and broader Japanese civil society:

Ideological innovation 🔗

The Suiheisha pioneered a new approach to challenging discrimination that rejected both traditional hierarchies and simple assimilationism. Its emphasis on inherent human dignity and the structural nature of discrimination provided a foundation for later civil rights organizing in Japan. The organization’s blending of political analysis with cultural affirmation created a template for identity-based movements that would emerge globally in later decades.

Organizational continuity 🔗

After World War II, former Suiheisha members were instrumental in founding the National Committee for Burakumin Liberation (Buraku Kaihō Zenkoku Iinkai) in 1946, which later became the Buraku Liberation League (Buraku Kaihō Dōmei). These post-war organizations built directly on Suiheisha principles while adapting them to the democratic context of occupied and post-occupation Japan.

Cultural impact 🔗

The Suiheisha helped cultivate a tradition of Burakumin literature, art, and cultural expression that continues to this day. Writers like Kenji Nakagami, whose work explores Burakumin identity and experience, acknowledge the Suiheisha’s role in creating space for such cultural production.

International connections 🔗

The Suiheisha’s international outlook established connections between Burakumin liberation and global movements against discrimination. In the post-war period, these connections would expand, with Burakumin organizations forming solidarities with movements against caste discrimination in South Asia, civil rights movements in the United States, and struggles against apartheid in South Africa.

Conclusion 🔗

The struggle of the Hisabetsu Buraku and the formation of the Suiheisha represent a crucial chapter in Japanese history that challenges simplified narratives of Meiji-era modernization. While Japan was transforming itself into a modern nation-state, the persistence of discrimination against the Burakumin revealed the limitations of modernization that did not address fundamental issues of human dignity and equality.

The Suiheisha’s radical stance-rejecting assimilation while demanding full recognition of Burakumin humanity-created a new paradigm for challenging discrimination that would influence future civil rights movements in Japan and beyond. Their struggle highlights the complex intersections of tradition, modernity, religion, politics, and identity that characterized Japan’s modernization process.

The movement’s legacy continues in contemporary Japan, where Burakumin organizations still work to address lingering discrimination and historical trauma. Understanding the Suiheisha and its historical context provides valuable insights into how marginalized communities can mobilize against discrimination even in hostile political environments, creating new possibilities for human freedom and dignity.

What do you think? How might the tactics developed by the Suiheisha to confront discrimination compare to those used by other civil rights movements around the world? In what ways does the story of Burakumin resistance complicate our understanding of Japan’s modernization during the Meiji era?