Artistic Expressions under the Delhi Sultanate: Murals to Manuscripts

The art of painting during the Delhi Sultanate period (1206-1526) represents one of the most intriguing yet understudied chapters in Indian art history. While architecture from this era has received considerable scholarly attention, paintings have remained somewhat elusive, largely due to the limited number of surviving examples. However, recent discoveries and careful examination of literary sources reveal a vibrant artistic tradition that evolved from wall murals to elaborate manuscript illustrations, blending indigenous Indian techniques with Persian and Islamic artistic sensibilities.

The historical context of paintings in the Delhi Sultanate 🔗

The Delhi Sultanate marked a significant transitional period in Indian cultural history, when Central Asian Turkic rulers established their dominance over northern India. This political shift naturally influenced artistic expressions, introducing new aesthetic sensibilities while adapting to existing Indian traditions. Understanding paintings from this period requires acknowledging this cultural intermingling and the gradual evolution of artistic styles over three centuries.

Contrary to common misconceptions, the Sultanate rulers were not uniformly opposed to figural representation in art. While some rulers adhered strictly to Islamic prohibitions against depicting living beings, others patronized various forms of painting, including figural art. This diversity in patronage resulted in a complex artistic landscape that defies simple categorization.

Early mural traditions: Blending continuity with innovation 🔗

The earliest paintings of the Sultanate period continued the Indian tradition of wall murals, albeit with new influences and techniques. Archaeological evidence, though limited, suggests that palaces and noble residences were adorned with colorful paintings depicting both decorative patterns and figurative scenes.

Literary evidence of mural painting 🔗

While few physical examples survive, literary sources provide intriguing glimpses into the mural traditions of the Sultanate period. The 14th-century poet Amir Khusrau mentions painted decorations in royal palaces, describing vivid scenes that adorned the walls of Delhi’s buildings. Similarly, Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveler who visited India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign, recorded seeing painted decorations in palaces and public buildings.

These accounts suggest that despite theological restrictions, figural representation continued in secular contexts, particularly in private spaces of rulers and nobles. The subjects likely included royal court scenes, hunting expeditions, and possibly mythological narratives drawn from Persian literature.

Archaeological discoveries 🔗

Recent archaeological findings have provided physical evidence supporting these literary accounts. Fragmentary remains of wall paintings discovered at sites like Tughlaqabad and Bidar fortress reveal sophisticated painting techniques using mineral pigments. These discoveries suggest continuity with pre-Islamic Indian painting traditions while showing new stylistic elements influenced by Central Asian and Persian aesthetics.

Particularly noteworthy are the mural fragments found in the Lodi period buildings, which display geometric patterns alongside stylized floral motifs. These examples demonstrate how artists adapted Islamic decorative principles to Indian aesthetic sensibilities, creating a distinctive visual language.

The rise of manuscript illumination 🔗

Perhaps the most significant development in painting during the Delhi Sultanate period was the rise of manuscript art-a form that would later flourish magnificently under Mughal patronage. This transition from monumental wall paintings to intimate book illustrations represented not just a change in medium but a fundamental shift in artistic approach.

Quranic calligraphy and illumination 🔗

The earliest surviving examples of Sultanate painting appear in religious manuscripts, particularly copies of the Quran. These manuscripts feature exquisite calligraphy complemented by illuminated decorations in the form of geometric and floral patterns. Gold leaf was commonly used to highlight important sections, creating visually stunning pages that elevated the sacred text.

A notable example is the 14th-century Quran commissioned by Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq, which displays sophisticated illumination techniques including elaborate geometric designs framing the text and ornate rosettes marking section divisions. The calligraphy itself became an art form, with different styles like Naskh and Thuluth adapted to Indian aesthetic preferences.

These Quranic manuscripts represent a crucial link between West Asian Islamic artistic traditions and emerging Indo-Islamic styles. Calligraphers and illuminators, many trained in Persian techniques, gradually incorporated local aesthetic elements, creating a distinctive Sultanate style.

Secular manuscripts and the emergence of book painting 🔗

By the late 14th century, manuscript illustration expanded beyond religious texts to include secular works, particularly Persian poetry and historical chronicles. This development coincided with increasing cultural exchange between India and Persia, facilitated by the movement of scholars, poets, and artists.

The earliest dated illustrated manuscript from the Sultanate period is a copy of the “Nimatnama” (Book of Delicacies), a culinary and aphrodisiac manual compiled for Sultan Ghiyath Shah of Malwa in the late 15th century. Its illustrations show a fascinating blend of Persian painting techniques with indigenous Indian elements, depicting cooking scenes, royal entertainments, and hunting expeditions.

These secular manuscripts reveal how artists negotiated between Islamic artistic conventions and local Indian traditions. Figures are often portrayed in profile against flat, decorative backgrounds-a characteristic of Persian miniature paintings-but with distinctively Indian facial features, clothing, and architectural elements.

Regional schools and stylistic diversity 🔗

As the Sultanate’s political control fragmented in the 15th century, regional courts emerged as important centers of artistic patronage, leading to the development of distinctive painting styles across northern and central India.

The Jaunpur school 🔗

Under the Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur, a notable tradition of manuscript painting emerged that combined Islamic book arts with local painting styles. The Jaunpur Qurans are particularly renowned for their distinctive illuminations featuring intricate geometric patterns in vibrant blues, reds, and gold. Though primarily non-figural, these manuscripts demonstrate sophisticated design sensibilities that influenced later regional styles.

Beyond religious texts, the Jaunpur court also patronized illustrated copies of Persian literary works. These manuscripts show a greater willingness to incorporate figural representation, suggesting a more liberal artistic environment compared to the central Sultanate court in Delhi.

Painting in the Deccan Sultanates 🔗

As the Delhi Sultanate’s influence waned in central India, successor states in the Deccan region developed their own artistic traditions. The courts of Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmadnagar became particularly important centers for manuscript painting in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

Although these traditions would fully flourish after the Delhi Sultanate period, their foundations were laid during the late Sultanate era. Early Deccani paintings show distinctive characteristics including vibrant color palettes, stylized natural elements, and a dreamlike quality that distinguishes them from northern Indian works.

Literary evidence suggests that Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani (r. 1463-1482) invited artists from Persia and Central Asia to his court, initiating a tradition of manuscript painting that would continue under the successor Sultanates of the Deccan region.

Indigenous traditions and Hindu manuscript painting 🔗

It’s important to recognize that parallel to court-sponsored Islamic manuscript traditions, indigenous painting styles continued to develop during the Sultanate period, particularly in regions less directly under Sultanate control.

Jain manuscripts 🔗

Some of the best-preserved paintings from this era are found in Jain religious manuscripts, particularly from Gujarat and Rajasthan. These works, executed on palm leaf and later on paper, display a distinctive style characterized by bold outlines, flat areas of bright color, and stylized human figures with pronounced eyes and pointed features.

The Kalpasutra manuscripts dating from the 14th and 15th centuries represent the continuity of pre-Islamic painting traditions during the Sultanate period. While primarily following indigenous conventions, these manuscripts occasionally show subtle influences from contemporary Islamic book arts, particularly in decorative elements and the increasing use of paper instead of palm leaf.

Sanskrit texts and early Rajput painting 🔗

Hindu courts under Sultanate suzerainty also commissioned illustrated manuscripts, particularly of Sanskrit texts like the Bhagavata Purana and various Ragamala series (visual depictions of musical modes). These early examples of what would later develop into Rajput painting show a fascinating interplay between traditional Indian iconography and techniques influenced by Islamic manuscript arts.

The earliest surviving Hindu paper manuscripts date from the late 15th century, suggesting that paper technology-introduced to India through Islamic cultural contact-was gradually adopted for indigenous literary and artistic traditions as well.

Techniques and materials: The craft of Sultanate painting 🔗

Understanding the technical aspects of Sultanate painting provides valuable insight into the cultural exchanges and innovations of this period.

The shift from wall to paper 🔗

Perhaps the most significant technical development during this period was the transition from wall surfaces to paper as the primary medium for painting. Paper, introduced to India through Islamic cultural connections, gradually replaced traditional materials like palm leaf and cloth.

This shift enabled new artistic possibilities, including the creation of portable, intimate works that could be collected and viewed in private. It also facilitated the compilation of illustrated manuscripts with multiple images, allowing for sequential visual narratives.

Pigments and application techniques 🔗

Sultanate painters employed a range of mineral and vegetable pigments, many continuing traditions established in pre-Islamic Indian painting. However, new materials and techniques were introduced through contact with Persian and Central Asian artistic traditions.

Analysis of surviving works reveals the use of lapis lazuli (for blue), vermilion (for red), gold leaf, and a variety of locally sourced pigments. These were typically bound with gum arabic and applied with fine brushes made from squirrel hair-a technique that allowed for the extraordinary detail characteristic of manuscript paintings.

The preparation of painting surfaces also evolved during this period, with specialized techniques for sizing and burnishing paper to create the smooth, receptive surface necessary for detailed miniature work.

Legacy and influence on later painting traditions 🔗

The painting traditions developed during the Delhi Sultanate period laid crucial groundwork for the flowering of Mughal and Rajput painting in subsequent centuries.

Foundations for Mughal painting 🔗

When Babur established Mughal rule in 1526, he encountered an already-established tradition of Indo-Islamic painting. The techniques, aesthetic sensibilities, and workshop practices developed during the Sultanate period provided essential foundations upon which the renowned Mughal atelier system would build.

Early Mughal paintings show clear continuities with late Sultanate works, particularly in compositional approaches and the treatment of architectural elements. Even as Mughal painting incorporated new influences from Safavid Persia and European art, it built upon traditions established during the preceding centuries.

Influence on regional schools 🔗

The regional styles that emerged during the late Sultanate period-in Malwa, Jaunpur, and the Deccan-continued to develop along distinctive trajectories, eventually evolving into the varied regional schools of Indian painting recognized today.

The cross-fertilization between Islamic and indigenous Indian artistic traditions that began during the Sultanate period created a rich visual vocabulary that would be reinterpreted and elaborated upon by generations of artists across the subcontinent.

Challenges in studying Sultanate paintings 🔗

Scholars face significant challenges in reconstructing a comprehensive history of painting during the Delhi Sultanate period. The relative scarcity of surviving examples, compared to later Mughal works, has often led to this period being treated as merely preparatory to the better-documented artistic traditions that followed.

However, recent scholarship has begun to appreciate the Sultanate period as a distinctive and important chapter in Indian art history in its own right. Archaeological discoveries, technical analysis of surviving works, and careful reading of contemporary literary sources continue to enhance our understanding of this formative period in Indo-Islamic painting.

Conclusion: Reappraising the artistic legacy of the Delhi Sultanate 🔗

The painting traditions of the Delhi Sultanate represent a crucial transitional phase in Indian art history-a period of cultural negotiation and creative synthesis. From wall murals to exquisite manuscripts, Sultanate painters developed distinctive approaches that blended Islamic artistic conventions with indigenous Indian traditions.

While architectural monuments stand as the most visible artistic legacy of the Sultanate period, paintings offer equally valuable insights into the cultural dynamics of medieval India. The evolution from monumental murals to intimate manuscript illustrations reflects broader social and intellectual currents, including changing patterns of patronage and the introduction of new technologies like paper.

By recognizing the significance of Sultanate painting as more than merely a prelude to Mughal achievements, we gain a richer understanding of Indian art history and the complex processes of cultural exchange that have shaped the subcontinent’s visual traditions.

What do you think? How might our understanding of Indian art history change if more examples of Sultanate-era paintings were discovered? How does the evolution from mural paintings to manuscript illustrations reflect broader changes in medieval Indian society and patronage systems?